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The Constitutional Core of the Union

Basic Provisions and Structures of the EU Treaties

This book is a comparative study of how courts and oversight bodies review lawmaking processes, exposing democratic deficits and advocating for transparent, participatory legislative reform across Europe. In an era of fast-track legislation and executive overreach, the democratic legitimacy of lawmaking is under increasing pressure. This timely and original volume offers the first comprehensive, comparative analysis of how judicial and non-judicial bodies monitor and assess legislative procedures across Europe and beyond. Drawing on examples from Hungary, France, and the United States, the book highlights troubling trends - such as the use of expedited processes, exclusion of opposition voices, and lack of public participation - that undermine democratic principles and good governance. Contributors examine how courts, parliamentary committees, and international organisations like the Venice Commission respond to these challenges, offering insights into their capacity to uphold constitutional standards and human rights protections. The book also explores the broader implications of defective lawmaking for the rule of law, separation of powers, and the achievement of global goals such as the UN's Sustainable Development Agenda. Featuring leading scholars and practitioners from across Europe, including underrepresented jurisdictions, the volume bridges theory and practice, offering a rich interdisciplinary perspective. It is essential reading for academics, legal professionals, policymakers, and civil society actors concerned with the integrity of democratic institutions and the future of legislative governance. By shedding light on the mechanisms of procedural review, this book makes a compelling case for more transparent, inclusive, and accountable lawmaking in democratic societies.

European Perspectives on the Procedural Review of Parliamentary Lawmaking

Code of Federal Regulations, Title 09 Animals and Animal Products

A compilation of federal regulations, the CFRs are an authoritative source of government information representing broad subject areas. Title 9 presents regulations governing animal and plant health inspection services, grain inspection, packers and stockyard administration, and food safety and inspection of meat and poultry. Additions and revisions to this section of the code are posted annually by January.

Code of Federal Regulations, Title 09 Animals and Animal Products 1-199, Revised as of January 1, 2026

Code of Federal Regulations, Title 12 Banks and Banking

This CFR presents regulations governing banking procedures and activities of the Comptroller of the Currency, the Federal Reserve System, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, the Export-Import Bank, Office of Thrift Supervision, Farm Credit Administration, and the National Credit Union Administration.

Code of Federal Regulations, Title 12 Banks and Banking 600-899, Revised as of January 1, 2025

Elements of International Law

Reservations to Treaties

Studies in International Law

This book offers the first comprehensive study of unjust enrichment as a principle of international law. While domestic legal systems have long recognised unjust enrichment as a basis for restitution, its role in international law remains underexplored. This book addresses this gap by examining the roles of the international norm against unjust enrichment both as an independent basis for a claim and in the development and interpretation of other international norms. It explores the far-reaching implications of this norm for inter-state relations and investment arbitration. The book advances three key arguments: that unjust enrichment claims in international law may extend to indirect recipients; that states enriched through conduct harming another state can incur liability in unjust enrichment even without a transfer of value from the harmed state to the enriched state; and that the principle of unjust enrichment is not merely subsidiary to the law of state responsibility for internationally wrongful conduct. Through rigorous analysis, the book explores the rationales underlying unjust enrichment - proprietary, fairness, and wrongfulness - and evaluates their applicability in the international arena. It also considers practical challenges such as indeterminacy, multiple-claimant situations, and the risk of proliferating disputes. Drawing on jurisprudence from the Iran-US Claims Tribunal, ICSID, and other international tribunals, as well as comparative insights from English, German, US, and other domestic laws, the book provides a nuanced framework for applying unjust enrichment in international law. It will be indispensable for scholars of public international law, practitioners engaged in inter-state adjudication, government lawyers, and investment arbitration specialists seeking principled solutions to complex disputes.

Unjust Enrichment in International Law

Science fiction has long been fascinated with the potential for sentient, human-like artificial persons. Even before reality meets fantasy, individuals, governments and businesses already entrust AI to make automated decisions with potential for real-life impact. What are the implications for AI legal personhood? This work examines how different legal entities differ in rights and duties and considers historical examples that show how legal personhood status can change over time under economic, social and pragmatic pressures. By abandoning the traditional binary, characteristics-based concept of the legal person for a historical lens, we are left with a more nuanced concept of the legal person against which sentience matters far less than what we might otherwise assume.

Persona Ex Machina: Artificial Intelligence on a Spectrum of Legal Personhood

Americans take it for granted that the states of the union make up an economic common market. But that is the case only because early in the nation's history the Supreme Court ruled that the Commerce Clause of the Constitution establishes a principle--sometimes called the "dormant Commerce Clause" principle--that blocks individual states from cutting off the free flow of cross-border trade. From the 1820s onward the Court has issued hundreds of rulings applying this doctrine to prevent the states from imposing tariff-like taxes, local processing requirements, and other restrictions on the free movement of goods and services across state lines. The result for the nation has been, as Justice Robert Jackson once observed, a "material success that . . . has been the most impressive in the history of commerce." After joining the Court in 1986 Justice Antonin Scalia challenged the dormant Commerce Clause principle as an illegitimate judicial innovation at odds with a proper "originalist" interpretation of the Constitution. This critique, moreover, quickly picked up steam as other prominent jurists and commentators--most notably, Justice Clarence Thomas--gave it their enthusiastic support. Is the originalist challenge to the dormant Commerce Clause rule well-founded? In The Common-Market Constitution, Coenen argues that the answer is no. Like Justice Scalia, Coenen focuses on discovering the original public meaning of the Commerce Clause. According to Coenen, however, the text and history of that clause compel a conclusion that is the direct opposite of the one that Justice Scalia reached. As Coenen demonstrates, a proper originalist assessment of the dormant Commerce Clause principle requires consideration of a sweeping body of text- and history-based evidence that ranges far beyond what critics of that principal rule have focused on in the past. A full and fair appraisal of that evidence, Coenen argues, leaves no doubt that the constitutional rule that the Court has long applied to safeguard the American common market does reflect the original public meaning of the Commerce Clause.

Text, History, and the "Dormant Commerce Clause" Rule

The Common-Market Constitution

Presents regulations governing banking procedures and activities of the Comptroller of the Currency, the Federal Reserve System, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, the Export-Import Bank, Office of Thrift Supervision, Farm Credit Administration, and the National Credit Union Administration.

Code of Federal Regulations, Title 12 Banks and Banking 1-199, Revised as of January 1, 2025

Studien zum Regulierungsrecht

This study develops, from the perspective of European law, a concept for the systemic regulation of disinformation on online platforms aimed at safeguarding the integrity of the public opinion-formation process in the European Union. Against the backdrop of disinformation events between 2016 and 2025 and the changing conditions of platform-based communication, it examines - on the basis of the fundamental rights of the European Union, in particular the scope of protection of freedom of expression under Article 11(1) of the Charter of Fundamental Rights - how proportionate disinformation regulation can be designed within the framework of Articles 34 and 35 of the Digital Services Act and implemented, for instance, through a code of conduct pursuant to Article 45.
 

 The study combines a doctrinal legal analysis of freedom of expression with legal-philosophical and legal-sociological perspectives, drawing on emergence theory to explain how individual disinformative expressions transition from the discursive micro-level to the macro-level of public discourse. On this basis, it develops the concept of disinformation dynamics as an operational point of reference for systemic risks within the meaning of the Digital Services Act.
 

 The result is a proposal for a procedural regulatory architecture that, instead of relying on substantive assessments of truth, is based on a rebuttable presumption of disinformation and, where such suspicion is triggered, enables rights-compliant regulatory measures through a discursive reversal of the burden of proof. An interdisciplinary analysis of AI-based algorithmic detection methods - including knowledge-based, style-based, and dissemination-based approaches - demonstrates the technical feasibility of the concept and identifies the requirements for accuracy, fairness, and explainability in automated disinformation detection.
 

 The study thus contributes to the doctrinal development of European platform regulation and outlines ways to safeguard public opinion formation as a foundation of democracy in the digital sphere.

Rechtliche und technische Möglichkeiten zur Desinformationsbekämpfung auf Online-Plattformen am Maßstab des Art. 11 Abs. 1 GRCh

Systemische Desinformationsregulierung

Modern Studies in European Law

This book clarifies all legal aspects of the good neighbourliness principle in international and EU law. It elaborates on the most acute infringements of the principle of good neighbourliness in both international relations and EU enlargement policy. Taking a two-part approach, it offers the international law and EU law perspectives. Over five chapters, it sets out the legal framework and the practical application of the principle, before setting out conclusions on the effectiveness of that application. Given the current focus on enlargement and accession to the EU this is a timely and topical study in an under-researched field.

The Constitutional Core of the Union

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