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Routledge Library Editions: Nuclear Security

Originally published in 1986, although the pace of arms control negotiations has been stepped up, there is still little sign of agreement. In this paper the author examines the current negotiating effort, with particular emphasis on its implications for European security. He provides an up-to-date analysis of the superpower discussions on nuclear arms control, including the impact of 'star wars', and also of the talks at Vienna on conventional force reductions and at Stockholm on confidence-building measures. He notes a shift in emphasis from 'parity' to 'transparency' in Western proposals, and questions whether this promises greater results than were achieved from earlier approaches. He also warns of the risks of arms control arrangements obstructing possibilities for reforming the European security system.

Originally published in 1986, although the pace of arms control negotiations has been stepped up, there is still little sign of agreement. In this paper the author examines the current negotiating effort, with particular emphasis on its implications for European security.

Freedman Lawrence: Arms Control

Arms Control

Management or Reform?

Abbreviations. Preface. 1. Introduction 2. The Objectives of Arms Control 3. The Political Context 4. Parity and Sufficiency 5. Strategic Arms Control 6. Intermediate Nuclear Forces 7. Mutual and Balanced Force Reductions 8. Confidence-Building Measures 9. Conclusion. Appendices 1. Negotiating History of SALT 2. Negotiating History of START 3. Negotiating History of INF 4. The Data Question in INF 5. Negotiating History of MBFR 6. The Data Question in MBFR 7. Negotiating History of the Conference on Confidence and Security Building Measures and Disarmament.

There is growing interest world wide in nuclear-free zones. Originally published in 1987, this book explores the question of what constitutes a nuclear-free zone and charts the progress of the movement to establish them. The book shows how definitions of nuclear-free zones vary from those intended to exclude everything nuclear (including nuclear power installations and the dumping of nuclear waste) to those aiming to exclude nuclear weapons in a limited way. Special attention is paid to the three treaties which have established major international nuclear-free zones, (Latin America, South Pacific, Antarctica) examining their strengths and weaknesses as well as areas where the idea has been proposed (Balkans, Africa). The book concludes with a review of problems and prospects for the future.

There is growing interest world wide in nuclear-free zones. Originally published in 1987, this book explores the question of what constitutes a nuclear-free zone and charts the progress of the movement to establish them.

Nuclear-Free Zones

Safeguards play a key role in verifying the effectiveness of restraints on the spread of nuclear weapons. Originally published in 1985, this book is a study of the safeguards system of the International Atomic Energy Agency, an important element of the non-proliferation regime. It breaks new ground by focusing on the politics of safeguards, especially the political problems of the IAEA and of the day-to-day application of safeguards. It contains a critical appraisal and proposals for ways of improving existing procedures, and of adapting them to the political and technological changes of recent years.

Safeguarding the Atom gives an analysis of the following questions:



What are IAEA safeguards and how do they work?

How effective are they?

How can they be reinforced?

What sanctions can be imposed in the event of non-compliance?





IAEA safeguards represent the world's first and so far only attempt to verify an arms control agreement by systematic on-site inspection, and their applicability to other arms control measures is examined.

Safeguards play a key role in verifying the effectiveness of restraints on the spread of nuclear weapons. Originally published in 1985, this book is a study of the safeguards system of the International Atomic Energy Agency, an important element of the non-proliferation regime.

A Critical Appraisal

Safeguarding the Atom

In the early 1980s there had been an upsurge of public concern over the nuclear threat to Europe. Already saturated with nuclear weapons, Europe faced controversial new deployments and there was alarm over military strategies for nuclear war in the region. It is in this context that the idea of nuclear weapon-free zones had captured the popular imagination and became a political issue in Europe. Not only would such zones build confidence and raise the nuclear threshold, but they would be first steps towards a more comprehensive elimination of nuclear weapons.

Originally published in 1983 Nuclear Disengagement in Europe probes the question of nuclear weapon-free zones in the region. Pugwash and SIPRI arranged a meeting at which an international team of lawyers, scientists, politicians and military experts gave background information and provided an appraisal of problems regarding the zone initiatives as well as benefits that would accrue. Possible elements in a European zone arrangement were elaborated on and procedures towards the establishment of such a zone were suggested.

In the early 1980s there had been an upsurge of public concern over the nuclear threat to Europe. Already saturated with nuclear weapons, Europe faced controversial new deployments and there was alarm over military strategies for nuclear war in the region. First published in 1983 this title probes the question of nuclear weapon-free zones.

Nuclear Disengagement in Europe

Originally published in 1993, this volume was unique in its scope and approach: Unlike most literature on nuclear weapons proliferation at the time, the essays in this volume offer theoretical discussions and suggest testable hypotheses about the causes and effects of nuclear weapons proliferation.

The proliferation of nuclear weapons is an ideal subject for social science scholarship, and such scholarship is especially timely now. Among the topics discussed in The Proliferation Puzzle are:



The building of nuclear weapons is a complex task touching upon many of the subjects of study at the core of social science and international relations. Nuclear weapons may be acquired as a hedge against external threat, for reasons of national prestige, or as a result of pressures by domestic coalitions among scientists, bureaucrats, and the military. They may be sought for defensive purposes or to support hegemonic aspirations. Nuclear weapons also raise questions about civilian command and control, especially in crisis situations.





During the last two decades the acquisition of nuclear weapons has been proscribed by the non-proliferation regime. The decisions countries made about acquiring these weapons and the manner they chose to build them serve as a test of the efficacy of this particular regime, and of international regimes more generally.





Nuclear weapons were introduced at the time bipolarity became the international order. As the world moves away from bipolarity, there is a need to answer questions such as: What would be the effect of nuclear weapons in a multipolar order? How will the spread of nuclear weapons affect the distribution of capabilities among states? If nuclear weapons spread to additional countries, will they enhance stability or exacerbate instability? Can the spread of these weapons be managed or controlled?



This book brings together scholars from different schools within international relations and the social sciences to address the question of why nuclear weapons spread. A disciplined, rigorous examination of proliferation is important not only for scholarship but also for informed policymaking. The purpose of social science is to formulate hypotheses and devise theories that advance our understanding of society and aid in the fashioning of enlightened policy. The essays in this volume show how explicit hypotheses about the causes and consequences of nuclear weapons proliferation provide a deeper understanding of the problem and suggest specific, theory-informed policy recommendations.

First published in 1993, this volume was unique in its scope and approach: Unlike most literature on nuclear weapons proliferation at the time, the essays in this volume offer theoretical discussions and suggest testable hypotheses about the causes and effects of nuclear weapons proliferation.

Why Nuclear Weapons Spread (and What Results)

The Proliferation Puzzle

The debate on no-first-use of nuclear weapons has been conducted on a number of fronts. First use of nuclear weapons has come under challenge from many different directions: from church synods, from international lawyers, in debates at the United Nations, and from strategic thinkers.

Originally published in 1984, this book takes stock for and against no-first-use and examines the political, military and arms control implications of such a commitment.

First use of nuclear weapons has come under challenge from many different directions: church synods, international lawyers, in debates at the UN, and from strategic thinkers. First published in 1984, this book takes stock for and against no-first-use and examines the political, military and arms control implications of such a commitment.

No-First-Use

Originally published in 1977, the purpose of this book was to analyse the relationship between the security of two states mutually undergoing strategic disarmament at the time and the need for safeguarding their security by means of a verification system. The book thus studies some of the basic problems in the disarmament debate, issues that had been the subject of great political controversy.

Previous studies had been mainly descriptive or historical, lacking in objective political analysis, and tending to political bias, depending on the political school of the author. There was thus some justification for the statement made by some outstanding authorities in the field that 'to date, no systematic analysis has been attempted to determine what disarmament measures would optimally require of verification methods...' Our ambition is to respond to this criticism, at least so far as the strategic context of disarmament is concerned.

Chapter 1 introduces us to the enormous range of repercussions caused by a disarmament agreement. Chapter 2 examines the concept of verification, analysing the meaning of the term, presenting various definitions of what verification is and attempting to systematize the concept.

It has been noted on many occasions that the verification set up in a disarmament treaty is only one of a number of factors working towards compliance with a treaty. In fact the role of verification in presenting the treaty, and therefore the security of its participants, is to a large extent limited. However, without many other conditions being satisfied verification on its own can do little to preserve the treaty regime. Chapter 3 discusses these conditions. Chapter 4 gives a brief analysis of the concept of national interests in general, and the concept of national security in particular.

Among all the elements of 'security', it is military security that plays by far the largest role. Because of this. Chapter 5 considers a specific case of strategic military security, in which security, defined as stable strategic deterrence between two states, is analysed.

Finally, Chapter 6 analyses the question of what happens to security based on strategic deterrence when states enter into the disarmament process. More specifically, the role of verification in preserving security in such circumstances is analysed, thereby answering the main problem of the book. The supporting data for Chapter 6 is given in the Appendix.

Originally published in 1977, the purpose of this book was to analyse the relationship between the security of two states mutually undergoing strategic disarmament at the time and the need for safeguarding their security by means of a verification system.

Strategic Disarmament, Verification and National Security

In the 1970s tactical nuclear warfare was a topical issue. The introduction of the new generation of tactical nuclear weapons into Europe could have had disastrous consequences. These new weapons had already been developed by nuclear-weapon laboratories and pressures were growing for their deployment.

On first sight, smaller and more accurate nuclear weapons may seem more humane and militarily preferable to the relatively high-yield tactical nuclear weapons currently deployed. But some of these new types of weapons would blur the distinction between nuclear and conventional weapons and their use would make escalation to strategic nuclear war extremely likely. Indeed, the argument for these new weapons is that their use in wartime is more credible (and therefore 'acceptable') than current types of tactical nuclear weapons. This perception could easily lead to the exceedingly dangerous idea that some types of tactical nuclear war were 'winnable'.

The fact has to be faced that any use of nuclear weapons is almost certain to escalate until all available weapons are used. To believe otherwise is to believe that one side will surrender before it has used all the weapons in its arsenal. History shows that this is most unlikely to happen.

Because of its importance, SIPRI organized a meeting to discuss the whole question. Originally published in 1978, this book is the outcome of that meeting.

In the 1970s tactical nuclear warfare was a topical issue. The introduction of the new generation of tactical nuclear weapons into Europe could have had disastrous consequences. These new weapons had already been developed by nuclear-weapon laboratories and pressures were growing for their deployment.On first sight, smaller and more accurate nuclear weapons may seem more humane and militarily preferable to the relatively high-yield tactical nuclear weapons currently deployed. But some of these new types of weapons would blur the distinction between nuclear and conventional weapons and their use would make escalation to strategic nuclear war extremely likely. Indeed, the argument for these new weapons is that their use in wartime is more credible (and therefore ‘acceptable’) than current types of tactical nuclear weapons. This perception could easily lead to the exceedingly dangerous idea that some types of tactical nuclear war were ‘winnable’.The fact has to be faced that any use of nuclear weapons is almost certain to escalate until all available weapons are used. To believe otherwise is to believe that one side will surrender before it has used all the weapons in its arsenal. History shows that this is most unlikely to happen.Because of its importance, SIPRI organized a meeting to discuss the whole question. Originally published in 1978, this book is the outcome of that meeting.

European Perspectives

Tactical Nuclear Weapons

Originally published in 1985, the level of anxiety and suspicion between the USA and the USSR had rarely been higher. Many advocates of arms control believed that effective verification would reduce tensions and lessen the risk of war. This book analyses the two main issues of verification. One is technological: what are the present capabilities of various verification techniques and what is their potential? The devices and methods currently employed by the two major nuclear powers and by international organizations to monitor the compliance of states with arms control or disarmament treaties are examined. The second issue is political: how do US and Soviet approaches compare, what are the roles of domestic and bureaucratic politics, and on what criteria can a workable standard of adequacy be based? In short, how much is enough?

Although the study concludes that a number of significant arms control measures can already be adequately verified, modern weapons are becoming more mobile and it is becoming easier to conceal them. There is a danger that the ability to hide weapons will outstrip the ability to find them. Verification cannot promise to detect all violations; a workable standard of adequacy in verification must derive from the ability to detect militarily significant violations.

Originally published in 1985, the level of anxiety and suspicion between the USA and the USSR had rarely been higher. Many advocates of arms control believed that effective verification would reduce tensions and lessen the risk of war. This book analyses the two main issues of verification.

How Much is Enough?

Verification

Originally published in 1983, this book presents both the technical and political information necessary to evaluate the emerging threat to world security posed by recent advances in uranium enrichment technology. Uranium enrichment has played a relatively quiet but important role in the history of efforts by a number of nations to acquire nuclear weapons and by a number of others to prevent the proliferation of nuclear weapons. For many years the uranium enrichment industry was dominated by a single method, gaseous diffusion, which was technically complex, extremely capital-intensive, and highly inefficient in its use of energy. As long as this remained true, only the richest and most technically advanced nations could afford to pursue the enrichment route to weapon acquisition.

But during the 1970s this situation changed dramatically. Several new and far more accessible enrichment techniques were developed, stimulated largely by the anticipation of a rapidly growing demand for enrichment services by the world-wide nuclear power industry. This proliferation of new techniques, coupled with the subsequent contraction of the commercial market for enriched uranium, has created a situation in which uranium enrichment technology might well become the most important contributor to further nuclear weapon proliferation.

Some of the issues addressed in this book are:



A technical analysis of the most important enrichment techniques in a form that is relevant to analysis of proliferation risks;





A detailed projection of the world demand for uranium enrichment services;





A summary and critique of present institutional non-proliferation arrangements in the world enrichment industry, and





An identification of the states most likely to pursue the enrichment route to acquisition of nuclear weapons.

Originally published in 1983, this book presents both the technical and political information necessary to evaluate the emerging threat to world security posed by recent advances in uranium enrichment technology.

Uranium Enrichment and Nuclear Weapon Proliferation

For the third year running, this book, originally published in 1984, provided those actively concerned with the dangers of war at the time, with well-researched and up-to-date information on military developments of every kind.

Based on material published in the SIPRI Yearbook 1984, this book contains the essential data on nuclear issues, on military expenditure and the arms trade, and examines the breakdown of the arms control talks in 1983.

For the third year running, this book, originally published in 1984, provided those actively concerned with the dangers of war at the time, with well-researched and up-to-date information on military developments of every kind.

The Arms Race and Arms Control 1984

In the 1980s the world spent an enormous amount on preparations for war. Year by year, more and more resources went into the military sector. More and more complex weapon systems were devised. At the time, of all research scientists and engineers in the world, more than one in four was working for the military.

Throughout the 40 years since the end of World War II, the technological arms race continued. Then began moving faster. The United States lead the way, followed by the Soviet Union. Between them, they possessed some 50 000 nuclear warheads-more than enough to destroy the world. They planned to increase the number, to make the weapons more accurate, and to base them on new weapon platforms closer to the borders of the other side. Some people preferred not to think about these things. Many, however, were becoming increasingly concerned-wondering about the future for themselves and for their children. Originally published in 1985, this book was for those who wanted to know what was happening. What new missiles were being built? What was happening in outer space? What are the facts about chemical weapons? What progress was being made (if any) in Geneva, Vienna and Stockholm, where the powers were negotiating on these matters?

In the 1980s the world spent an enormous amount on preparations for war. Originally published in 1985, this book was for those who wanted to know what was happening. What new missiles were being built? What was happening in outer space? What are the facts about chemical weapons?

New Developments in the Global Arms Race

Arms in the '80s

Originally published in 1982, this is the most comprehensive handbook on arms control ever published. It contains an analysis of the bilateral and multilateral agreements reached since World War II. An assessment is made of the extent to which each agreement has affected the arms race, reduced the likelihood of war or otherwise contributed to the overall goal of disarmament. Ongoing arms control negotiations are also analyzed.

The complex problem of verification of compliance with arms control obligations is critically examined, and the shortcomings of the existing arrangements are pointed out.

The critique is searching, objective and free of the usual biases of official government reports.

The analysis of the arms control agreements is preceded by an historical overview, beginning with the Hague Peace Conferences, held at the turn of this century, through the League of Nations' attempts to bring about a universal reduction of armaments, to the activities of the United Nations in the field of arms regulation and general disarmament. The present arms control negotiating machinery is described.

The texts of the relevant documents are reproduced for handy reference and the status of the implementation of the most important multilateral arms control agreements is presented in tabular form. Tables and figures facilitate the reading.

Originally published in 1982, this is the most comprehensive handbook on arms control ever published. It contains an analysis of the bilateral and multilateral agreements reached since World War II. An assessment is made of the extent to which each agreement has affected the arms race, reduced the likelihood of war or otherwise contributed to the overall goal of disarmament. Ongoing arms control negotiations are also analyzed.The complex problem of verification of compliance with arms control obligations is critically examined, and the shortcomings of the existing arrangements are pointed out.The critique is searching, objective and free of the usual biases of official government reports.The analysis of the arms control agreements is preceded by an historical overview, beginning with the Hague Peace Conferences, held at the turn of this century, through the League of Nations' attempts to bring about a universal reduction of armaments, to the activities of the United Nations in the field of arms regulation and general disarmament. The present arms control negotiating machinery is described.The texts of the relevant documents are reproduced for handy reference and the status of the implementation of the most important multilateral arms control agreements is presented in tabular form. Tables and figures facilitate the reading.

A Critical Survey

Agreements for Arms Control

Routledge Advances in International Relations and Global Politics

Does judicial accountability have a valid place in ending corruption and augmenting rebuilding of the shattered state? Dave Benjamin offers a thoughtful polemic intended to provoke discussion about how to bring justice to peoples who are disenfranchised by kleptocracy, and who seek justice that would hold those who have plundered their countries judicially and criminally responsible for their actions.

The international community is at a critical juncture. Although efforts are being made by intergovernmental and international non-governmental organizations to prevent and stop corruption, its effects have been felt in many post-colonial states where the ability of the state to meet the needs of the citizenry has been severely compromised or crushed. Does judicial accountability have a valid place in ending corruption and augmenting rebuilding of the shattered state? Dave Benjamin offers a thoughtful polemic on the application of norms of international criminal law to the prosecution and prevention of kleptocracy. Intended to provoke discussion about how to bring justice to peoples who are disenfranchised by kleptocracy, Benjamin examines events in Democratic Republic of Congo, Haiti, Liberia, and Somalia and posits that kleptocracy needs to be classified and prosecuted as an international crime to punish kleptocrats and their associates; secure the return of resources and assets to the states and peoples from which they were stolen; and act as a deterrent to future kleptocrats. Entering an entirely new area of inquiry and discussion, this rigorous and highly original analysis of corruption is a must read for all those interested in international criminal law, development studies, and international human rights.

Conflict, State Failure and Judicial Accountability

Corruption as an International Crime

Routledge Series on Global Order Studies

This volume seeks to demonstrate that although the historical standard of 'civilization' has fallen to disrepute, it still remains an international practice as well as a benchmark against which the attitudes and policies of states are assessed. Utilizing the theoretical framework of the English School of International Relations, the volume identifies 'membership conditionality' as the contemporary version of the historical standard of 'civilization'. This text will be of key interest to students and scholars in international relations theory, international law, international organizations, international political theory, European studies, and historical sociology.

This volume seeks to demonstrate that although the historical standard of ‘civilization’ has fallen to disrepute, it still remains an international practice as well as a benchmark against which the attitudes and policies of states are assessed.

The Case of EU Conditionality

The Standard of Civilization in Contemporary International Society

With twice as much content, filled with interactive forms, and 15 years newer than the competition, this book is an essential reference for all law enforcement agencies. Topics include compliance, inspections, oversight, and policies and procedures for ensuring that evidence maintains the appropriate chain of custody. It also covers the latest in training and certification of property managers. The content is gleaned from the author's experience overseeing the construction and management of the largest property warehouse ever-combining evidence from all military branches around the world. The book includes a CD-ROM with downloadable, rewritable forms for use in the evidence room.

With twice as much content, filled with interactive forms, and 15 years newer than the competition, this book is an essential reference for all law enforcement agencies. Topics include compliance, inspections, oversight, and policies and procedures for ensuring that evidence maintains the appropriate chain of custody. It also covers the latest in training and certification of property managers. The content is gleaned from the author’s experience overseeing the construction and management of the largest property warehouse ever—combining evidence from all military branches around the world. The book includes a CD-ROM with downloadable, rewritable forms for use in the evidence room.

A Guide for Storage of Physical Property in Law Enforcement

Evidence Room Management

This Handbook offers a state of the art overview of political leadership. Bell draws from not only the fields of political science and international relations but also from organization and management studies, anthropology and psychology. It focuses on the theory, history of the study, the techniques of leadership, its discourse and the moral basis for leadership. Drawing together contributions from leading researchers in the field from the US, UK &amp; Europe, this work will be of great interest to all students and scholars of political leadership, political psychology and leadership studies.

Routledge Handbook of Political Leadership

Rethinking Asia and International Relations

India and Pakistan's strategic thinking has unfolded hence shifting re-constructions of India-PakistanâEUR(TM)s nationalist identities, (in)securities and their nuclear policy choices. Through a blend of materialism and constructivism, this study not only recasts the dynamics of India-PakistanâEUR(TM)s nuclear politics from a more non-traditional angle, but also contains policy implications by drawing attention to how ideological underpinnings of policy makers - who interpret and construct their world of strategic thinking - impact inter-state nuclear security affairs.

India and Pakistan's strategic thinking has unfolded hence shifting re-constructions of India-Pakistan’s nationalist identities, (in)securities and their nuclear policy choices. Through a blend of materialism and constructivism, this study not only recasts the dynamics of India-Pakistan’s nuclear politics from a more non-traditional angle, but also contains policy implications by drawing attention to how ideological underpinnings of policy makers - who interpret and construct their world of strategic thinking - impact inter-state nuclear security affairs.

Strategic Culture, Identity and (in)Security in International Politics

Interpreting Nuclear India and Pakistan

Arms Control

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